Raffles Stamford

Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles
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(1781-1826)
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Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Jamaica. Little is known of Raffles' parents. His father, Captain Benjamin Raffles, was involved in the slave trade in the Caribbean, and died suddenly when Raffles was fourteen, leaving his family in debt. The younger Raffles immediately started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company, the quasi-government trading company that shaped many of Britain's overseas conquests. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia, then called Prince of Wales Island, starting a long association with Southeast Asia, starting with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the Governor of Penang.
As he was gazetted assistant secretary to the new Governor of Penang in 1805, he married Olivia Mariamne Devenish, a widow who was formerly married to Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras who had died in 1800. It was also this time that he made acquaintance with Thomas Otho Travers, who would accompany him for the next twenty years.
Java
His knowledge of the Malay language as well as his wit and ability gained him favour with Lord Minto, governor of India, and he was sent, first to Malacca, then, in 1811, after the annexation of Kingdom of Holland by France, mounted a military expedition against the Dutch in Java. The war was swiftly conducted by Admiral Robert Stopford, General Wetherhall, and Colonel Gillespie, who led a well organized army against an army of mostly French conscripts with little proper leadership. The previous Dutch governor, Herman Willem Daendels, built a well-defended fortification at Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara), and at the time, the governor, Jan Willem Janssens (who, coincidentally, surrendered to the British at the Cape Colony), mounted a brave but ultimately futile defence at the fortress. The English, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort and captured it within three hours. Janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days, with Raffles appointed the Lieutenant-Governor by Lord Minto before hostilities formally ceased. He took his residence at Buitenzorg and despite having a small subset of Englishmen as his senior staff, he kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. He also negotiated peace and mounted some small military expeditions against local princes to subjugate them to British rule, as well a takeover of Bangka Island to set up a permanent British presence in the area in the case of the return of Java to Dutch rule after the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe. His ability to speak Malay allowed him to communicate well with the Temenggong and Tengku Hussein.
During his governorship, Raffles introduced partial self-government, stopped the slave trade, became an early opponent of the Opium trade by placing strict limitations upon its importation, much to the dismay of Calcutta, led an expedition to rediscover and restore Borobudur and other ancient monuments, and replaced the Dutch forced agriculture system with a land tenure system of land management, probably influenced by the earlier writings of Dirk van Hogendorp. He also changed the Dutch colonies to the British system of driving on the left.[citation needed]
Statue of Sir Stamford Raffles in Singapore, based on the original by Thomas WoolnerUnder the harsh conditions of the island, Olivia died on November 26th, 1814, an event that devastated Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England after the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, but not before he was officially replaced by John Fendall on account of the failure of the colony financially during his administration, as deemed by the successors of Lord Minto in Calcutta. He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name, and en route, visited Napoleon, who was in exile at St. Helena, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive.
Interlude in England
In 1817, Raffles wrote and published a book entitled History of Java, describing the history of the island from ancient times. In 1817 he was knighted by the prince regent, to whose daughter, Princess Charlotte, Princess Royal he was particularly close. At the publication of the book, he also stopped using the name "Thomas", preferring to use his middle name, "Stamford", possibly to avoid confusion amongst his associates with Sir Thomas Sevestre or his cousin who bore the same name. On 22 February, he married his second wife, Sophia Hull.
He was appointed as the Governor-General of Bencoolen (now Bengkulu) on 15 October, 1817, and set sail to take the post with his new wife.
Bencoolen and Malaya
Raffles arrived in Bencoolen on 19 March, 1818. Despite the prestige connected with the title, Bencoolen was a colonial backwater whose only real export was pepper and only the murder of a previous Resident, Thomas Parr, gained it any attention back home in Britain. Raffles found the place wretched, and set about for reforms immediately, mostly similar to what he had done in Java - abolishing slavery and limiting cockfighting and such games. To replace the slaves, he used a contingent of convicts, already sent to him from India. It is at this point when he realized the importance of a British presence that both challenged the Dutch hegemony in the area and could remain consistently profitable, unlike Bencoolen or Batavia. However, the strategic importance of poorly-maintained but well-positioned British possessions such as Penang or Bencoolen made it impossible for the British to abandon such unprofitable colonies in such close proximity to the Dutch in Java. The competition in the area, between Raffles and the aggressive Dutch de jure Governor, Elout, certainly led at least in part to the later Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Raffles looked into alternatives in the area - namely Bangka, which had been ceded to the Dutch after its conquest by the British during its occupation of Java.
Bintan was also under consideration. Despite the fact that Warren Hastings overlooked the island before settling upon Penang in 1786, the Riau Archipelago was an attractive choice just to the south of the Malay Peninsula, for its proximity to Malacca. In his correspondences with Calcutta, Raffles also emphasized the need to establish a certain amount of influence with the native chiefs, which had greatly waned since the return of the Dutch. Raffles sent Thomas Travers as an ambassador to the Dutch, to possibly negotiate an expansion of British economic interests. When this failed, and when Raffles' own expeditions into his new dominion found only treacherous terrain and few exportable goods, his desire to establish a better British presence was cemented.
However, the Anglo-Dutch Convention of 1814 was not completely clear, especially on the issue of certain possessions such as Padang. The Convention of 1814 only returned Dutch territory that was held before 1803, amongst which Padang was not one of them. Raffles asserted the British claim personally, leading a small expedition to the Sultanate of Minangkabau. Yet, as Raffles confirmed with the sultan regarding the absolute British influence of the area, he realized that the local rulers had only limited power over the well-cultivated and civilized country, and the treaty was largely symbolic and had little actual force.
The founding of Singapore
Meanwhile, Major William Farquhar, the British Resident of Malacca, had been attempting to negotiate commercial treaties with the local chiefs of the Riau Archipelago, especially with the heads of the Sultanate of Johore. Due to the death and subsequent turmoil of the sultanate at the time of Farquhar's arrival, Farquhar was compelled to sign the treaty not with the official head of the sultanate, but rather, the Raja Muda (Regent or Crown Prince) of Riau. Noting it as a success and reporting it as such back to Raffles, Raffles sailed to Calcutta in late 1818 to personally secure a British presence in the Riau area, especially Singapura, which was favored by both him through the readings of Malayan histories and by Farquhar's explorations.
Despite Lord Hastings' less-than-stellar opinion of Raffles before (which had necessitated his trip to England to clear his name at the end of his tenure as Governor-General of Java), the now well-connected and successful Raffles was able to secure the permission to set up a settlement where in Malaysian history the name Lion City was applied and was in a strategically advantageous position. However, he was not to provoke the Dutch, and his actions were officially disavowed. Despite the best efforts in London by authorities such as the Viscount Castlereagh to quell Dutch fears and the continuing efforts to reach an agreement between the nations that eventually became the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of London of 1824, as well as to send instructions to Raffles to undertake far less intrusive actions, the distance between the Far East and Europe had meant that the orders had no chance of reaching Raffles in time for his venture to start.
Singapore
Establishment
After a brief survey of the Karimun Islands, on 29 January 1819, he established a free-trade post at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. It was established that there was no Dutch presence on the island of Singapore. Johore also no longer had any control of the area, so contact was made with the local Temenggong, or Raja. The contacts were friendly and Raffles, knowledgeable about the muddled political situation, took advantage to provide a rudimentary treaty between the nominal chiefs of the area that called for the exclusivity of trade and the English protection of the area. Members of Raffles' party surveyed the island and proceeded to request the presence of the sultan, or whoever at the time had supreme nominal power, to sign a formal treaty, while Major Farquhar was ordered to do the same in Rhio. A few days later, the formal treaty signed by a man who claimed to be the "lawful sovereign of the whole of territories extending from Lingen and Johore to Mount Muar". This man was Tengku Long, who, although having had no previous contact with the British, had certainly heard of the might of the British navy and was in no position to argue against the terms. However, Raffles was able to charm the man and reassure him of that the Dutch posed no threat in the area. Farquhar's attempt to establish a more favorable treaty in Rhio was met with greater challenge, as the Dutch were present and made for a rather awkward position. The Dutch were justifiably alarmed and sent a small contingent to the island. Despite a covert offer of subterfuge against the Dutch offered by the Raja of Rhio, Farquhar returned and an official protest was sent by the Raja to Java regarding the matter.
Raffles declared the foundation of what was to become modern Singapore on 6 February, securing transfer of control of the island to the East India Company. Much pomp and ceremony was done, and the official treaty was read aloud in languages representing all nations present, as well as the Malay and Chinese inhabitants. Farquhar was officially named the Resident of Singapore as Raffles was named as "Agent to the Most Noble the Governor-General with the States of Rhio, Lingin and Johor". Although ownership of the post was to be exclusively British, explicit orders were given to Farquhar to maintain free passage of ships through the Strait of Singapore and a small military presence was established alongside the trading post. After issuing orders to Farquhar and the remaining Europeans, Raffles left the next day, 7 February, 1819.
Achin, and the early conflict/crisis with the Dutch
Raffles also planned to start a British presence in Achin, at the northern tip of Sumatra. As soon as he left, the Raja of Rhio sent letters to the Dutch, claiming innocence and a British encroachment. The Dutch in Malacca acted at once, and ordered that no Malays could go to Singapore. Raffles' bold claim of Singapore created a curious geographic situation where although Penang was clearly closer distance-wise to Singapore, Raffles, in his capacity as the Governor-General of Bencoolen, was in control. This undoubtedly irked the authorities in Penang to the point where they refused to send any sepoys to Singapore to complete the garrison. Official Dutch complaints came before the end of the month, and Raffles attempted to appease the situation by instructing Farquhar to not interfere with the politics of surrounding islands. Despite numerous threats and serious considerations by the Dutch Governor-General in Java, the Dutch did not take any military action.
The muddled political situation in Johore and Rhio also created a certain uneasiness and instability for the two nations. Turku Long was claimed to be a pretender to the throne, and since the succession laws in the Malay sultanates were not as clear cut as, for example, the Salic laws of Europe, the treaties signed between native rulers and the European powers always seemed to be on the verge of being invalidated, especially if a sultan is deposed by one of his siblings or other pretenders.
Nevertheless, amidst the uncertainty and intrigue, Raffles landed in Achin on 14 March, 1819, with the begrudging help of Penang. Once again, it seems that multiple people were in power, but none wanted to formally deal with the British. The hostile atmosphere created allowed for Raffles to cancel the only meeting he was able to arrange, with Panglima Polim, a powerful divisional chief, fearing treachery. As the influential merchant John Palmer, Raffles, and fellow commissioner John Monckton Coombs of Penang sat offshore, waiting for a response, Calcutta debated whether to reinforce Singapore or not. Evacuation plans were made, but the Dutch never acted and finally Lord Hastings prompted Colonel Bannerman, the Governor of Penang, to send funds to reinforce Singapore.
Raffles finally was able to convince his fellow commissioners to sign a treaty with Jauhar al-Alam Shah, the ruler of Achin, which placed a British resident as well as the exclusivity of trade. By the time Raffles returned to Singapore, on 31 May, much of the immediate crisis that the establishment of the colony have caused in both Penang and Calcutta have passed. By then, the initial five-hundred villagers have grown to become five-thousand merchants, soldiers, and administrators on the island. Raffles was determined to both destroy the Dutch monopoly in the area and create a gateway to the trade with China and Japan, the latter nation he attempted and failed to reach while governing Java.
The first year of Singapore
While in Singapore, Raffles readily established schools and churches in the native languages. Rather, he allowed for missionaries and local businesses to flourish. Certain colonial aspects remained: a European town was quickly built to segregate the population, separated by a river; carriage roads were built and cantonments constructed for the soldiers. Otherwise, however, no duties were imposed and confident that Farquhar have followed his instructions well, he sailed for Bencoolen once again on 28 June.
Bencoolen, once again
Raffles was still the Governor-General of Bencoolen and having returned to it after the settling of Singapore, Raffles started more reforms that were, by now, almost trademarks of his reign upon colonies. Forced labor was abolished when he first arrived, and he declared Bencoolen a free port as well. Currency was regulated and as he had an excess of out-of-work civil servants, formed committees to advise him in the running of the colony. However, Bencoolen was not as self-sufficient as Singapore. The area was poor and disease-ridden, and the first reports from the committees reflected very poorly upon the condition of the colony. Unlike the salutary neglect Raffles granted upon Singapore, he slowed the European-inspired reforms and emphasized on the cultivation of whatever land that was available. Native authorities were given power in their respective districts and were answerable only to the Governor-General. The slave-debtor system was brought in in exchange instead of the old slavery system that Raffles abolished in Java, Borneo, and initially in Bencoolen. Slave-debtors were registered, and educational reforms started to focus on the children instead of the entire population. Raffles was looking into a long-term plan for a slow reform of Bencoolen.
Unlike many other European colonizers, Raffles did not impose upon the colonized the language, culture, or other aspects of the colonizer. In addition to preserving the artifacts, fauna, and flora of his colonies, he also allowed religious freedom in his colonies, especially important as the Malay states were largely Muslim. However, Christian schools, especially schools for the very young and impressionable, were started by missionaries in all of his colonies.
Consolidation of the Eastern Isles
The death of Colonel Bannerman of Penang in October 1819 brought upon a new opportunity for Raffles to expand his power to also include the other minor British factories and outposts from Sumatra to Cochin China. He sailed to Calcutta and as Lord Hastings sought to consolidate all of the small British possessions in the East Indies. During his sojourn, he had the opportunity to argue for free trade and the protection of the private enterprise. Education and the retention of small British outposts were also discussed.
The Dutch claim on the Sultanate of Johore and hence, Rhio, and the diplomatic exchanges between Baron Godert van der Capellen and Calcutta continued throughout this time. The legitimacy of the British treaties were also questioned once again, but finally, as Singapore grew at an exponential rate, the Dutch gave up their claim on the island, allowing the colony to continue as a British possession. However, the pressures put upon Calcutta ensured that no single governor of all British possessions in the Strait or on Sumatra was appointed, and Raffles, whose health was slowly ailing, returned to Bencoolen.
Administration of Bencoolen, 1820 - 1822
Raffles returned to Bencoolen in ill-health, but as his health improved, he continued on his quest to learn about the island which he now called home. He studied the Batta cannibals of Tappanooly and their rituals and laws regarding the consumption of human flesh, writing in detail about the transgressions that warranted such an act as well as their methods. He also noted the rise of the Sikh religion in certain parts of Sumatra.
By early 1820, Tunku Long had firmly established himself as the Sultan of Johore to the British, but the political situation in the area remains a befuddled mess, with the old sultan dying and many new ones attempting to gain either the crown or regency. As Farquhar was involving himself poorly in local politics, Raffles appointed Travers as the Resident of Singapore, replacing Farquhar. Upon his arrival, Travers found the colony a delightful smörgåsbord of different races and cultures, numbering over six thousand, and the Singapore trade was slowly overtaking the Java trade.
As in Java, Raffles collected samples of local species of plants and animals, as well as described them in his journals. He also described other local tribes and their customs, especially their religions and laws. He brought the island of Nias under British rule as well, noting its more civilized state and production of rice.
Yet, the production of food remained somewhat of a problem in Bencoolen. Raffles paid special attention to the agricultural methods of the Chinese, and wrote an introduction to the only issue of Proceedings of the Agricultural Society, in order to remedy this. His employer, the East India Company, however, had no other concerns outside of profit, and even as Raffles lived like a country gentleman and ran his colony as an estate, his expenditures in natural preservation was frowned upon. The removal of him was discussed in both Calcutta and London, while Castlereagh continued negotiations with the Dutch regarding the ongoing diplomatic conflicts.
Luckily, the Singapore issue had its supporters in the House, so as negotiations went on in Europe, Raffles remained largely idle in Bencoolen. The only major issue, outside of the politics of local sultans, involved the replacement of Farquhar, who decided that he had no intention of leaving his post voluntarily, causing a moment of tension between him and Travers. Raffles' request for Travers to deliver dispatches to India nullified the issue late in the year, and Farquhar remained in charge in Singapore, with its survival still in doubt for many in both India and London, who believed that it would either be handed over to the Dutch or taken violently by the Dutch at the end of Castlereagh's negotiations.
Farquhar, however, stirred up more trouble, conflicting especially with local English merchants over trivial matters of self-importance and overreaction over small infractions of white traders, for some of which he was reprimanded by Calcutta officially. Public works, commissioned by Raffles but undertaken by Farquhar, was becoming overwhelmingly expensive.
Personal tragedies also started for Raffles. His eldest son, Leopold, died during an epidemic on 4 July 1821. The oldest daughter, Charlotte, was also sick with dysentery by the end of the year, but it would be his youngest son, Stamford Marsden, who would perish first with the disease, 3 January, 1822, with Charlotte to follow ten days later. For the good part of four month the couple remained devastated. The year would be eventful with the suicide of Castlereagh and the appointment of Lord Amherst as the Governor-General of India, replacing Hastings. As Raffles grew restless and depressed, he decided to visit Singapore, before heading home to England. Accompanying him would be his wife Sophia and only surviving child, Ella.
Singapore - 1822 - 1823
Raffles was pleased at the fact that Singapore had grown exponentially in such short years. The colony was a bustling hub of trade and activity. However, Farquhar's development work was deemed unsatisfactory and Raffles drew up what is now known as the Jackson Plan, and replanned the city according to recommendations of a committee headed by the colony's engineer, Phillip Jackson.
It was still a segregated plan, giving the best land to the Europeans, yet it was considered remarkably scientific for the time. It was also during the replanning and reconstruction of the town that allowed Farquhar to clash dramatically with Raffles, who had considered Farquhar unfit for the position of Resident, so Raffles took direct control with a heavy hand. In 1823, Raffles instituted a code of settlement for the populace, and soon followed with laws regarding the freedom of trade. He also quickly instituted a registration system for all land, regardless of ownership, and the repossession of the land by the government if land remained unregistered. This act greatly asserted the power of the British government as it covered land previously owned by the Sultan as well. A police force and magistrate was then set up, under British principles. In a very short period of time, Raffles had turned a semi-anarchic trading post into a proper city with at least a semblance of order.
Repeated efforts by Raffles for Calcutta to send a replacement for Farquhar remained unanswered. As Raffles started to hint at his impending retirement, he made Johore a British protectorate, causing a protest from van der Capellen. Finally, Calcutta appointed John Crawfurd, who had followed Raffles for over twenty years, as the Resident of Singapore. Captain William Gordon MacKenzie took over Bencoolen from Raffles. It's March 1823, and coincidentally, on the same day he was replaced, he received an official reprimand from London for the takeover of Nias.
With politics against him, Raffles finally turned back to the natural sciences. He gave a speech regarding the opening of a Malay college in Singapore that heavily involved his observations of his years in Southeast Asia and the importance of both the local and the European languages. Raffles personally gave $2000 towards the effort, as the East India Company gave $4000.
In 1823, Raffles drafted the first constitution for Singapore, which followed a fairly moralistic stance, outlawing gaming and slavery. A specific regulation in the constitution called for the multiethnic population of Singapore to remain as is, and there shall be no crimes based on being a race. He then went to work drafting laws, defining on exactly "what" constituted a crime. Finally, on 9 July, 1823, feeling that his work on establishing Singapore was finished, he boarded a ship for home, but not before a stop in Batavia to visit his old home and adversary, van der Capellen. A final stop in Bencoolen ensued, and finally, a voyage home, interrupted by a harrowing experience when one of the ships caught fire off Rat Island, which claimed many of his drawings and papers.
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 finally settled the score in the East Indies. The British gained dominance in the north, while the entirety of Sumatra became Dutch. The Malay Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent were both free of Dutch interference.
Raffles finally returned to England 22 August, 1824, over a year after he left Singapore. His longest tenure in Singapore was only eight months, but he was considered the father of Singapore nevertheless.
England and death
Upon arrival in England in poor health, both Sir and Lady Raffles convalesced in Cheltenham until September, after which he entertained distinguished guests in both London and his home. He also made considerations to run for parliament during this time, but this ambition was never realized. He moved to London at the end of November, just in time to have a war of words in front of the Court of Directors of the EIC regarding Singapore with Farquhar, who had also arrived in London. Despite several severe charges put upon Raffles, Farquhar was ultimately unable to discredit him and was denied a chance to be restored to Singapore, but he was given a military promotion instead.
With the Singapore matter settled, Raffles turned to his other great hobby - botany. Raffles was a founder (in 1825) and first president (elected April 1826) of the Zoological Society of London and the London Zoo. Meanwhile, he was not only not granted a pension, but was called to pay over twenty-two thousand pounds sterling for the losses incurred during his administrations. Raffles replied and clarified his actions, and moved to his country estate, Highwood, but before the issue was resolved, he was already much too ill.
He died in London, England, a day before his forty-fifth birthday, on July 5, 1826, of apoplexy. His estate amounted around ten thousand pounds sterling, which was paid to the Company to cover his outstanding debt. Because of his anti-slavery stance, he was refused burial inside his local parish church (St. Mary's, Hendon) by the vicar, whose family had made its money in the slave trade. A brass tablet was finally placed in 1887 and the actual whereabouts of his body was not found until 1914 when it was found in a vault. When the church was extended in the 1920s his tomb was incorporated into the body of the building.

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I primi anni di vita
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Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Jamaica . Raffles è nato Ann sulla nave al largo delle coste della Giamaica. Little is known of Raffles' parents. Poco si sa di Raffles' genitori. His father, Captain Benjamin Raffles, was involved in the slave trade in the Caribbean , and died suddenly when Raffles was fourteen, leaving his family in debt. Suo padre, il capitano Raffles Benjamin, è stato coinvolto nel commercio di schiavi nei Caraibi, e morì improvvisamente quando è stato Raffles quattordici, lasciando la sua famiglia in debito. The younger Raffles immediately started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company , the quasi-government trading company that shaped many of Britain's overseas conquests. Il giovane Raffles immediatamente iniziato a lavorare come impiegato a Londra per la Compagnia delle Indie, il governo quasi a forma di società commerciale che molte delle conquiste d'oltremare della Gran Bretagna. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia , then called Prince of Wales Island, starting a long association with Southeast Asia , starting with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas , the Governor of Penang. Nel 1805 è stato inviato a ciò che è ora di Penang nel paese della Malesia, che allora si chiamava Principe di Galles Island, iniziando una lunga associazione con il Sud-Est asiatico, a partire da un post sotto l'onorevole Philip Dundas, il Governatore di Penang.
As he was gazetted assistant secretary to the new Governor of Penang in 1805, he married Olivia Mariamne Devenish, a widow who was formerly married to Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras who had died in 1800. Come egli è stato pubblicato vice-segretario per il nuovo governatore di Penang nel 1805, si era sposato con Olivia Mariamne Devenish, una vedova che è stato precedentemente sposato con Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, un assistente chirurgo a Madras, che era morto nel 1800. It was also this time that he made acquaintance with Thomas Otho Travers , who would accompany him for the next twenty years. E 'stato anche questa volta, che egli ha fatto conoscenza con Thomas Otho Travers, che lo accompagnano per i prossimi venti anni.
Java
His knowledge of the Malay language as well as his wit and ability gained him favour with Lord Minto , governor of India , and he was sent, first to Malacca , then, in 1811, after the annexation of Kingdom of Holland by France, mounted a military expedition against the Dutch in Java. La sua conoscenza della lingua malese, come pure la sua arguzia e la capacità acquisita con lui favore Signore Minto, il governatore di India, e gli è stato inviato, prima a Malacca, poi, nel 1811, dopo l'annessione del Regno di Olanda dalla Francia, a bordo di una Spedizione militare contro gli olandesi a Java. The war was swiftly conducted by Admiral Robert Stopford , General Wetherhall, and Colonel Gillespie, who led a well organized army against an army of mostly French conscripts with little proper leadership. La guerra è stata rapidamente condotto da Robert ammiraglio Stopford, Wetherhall generale, e il colonnello Gillespie, che ha condotto un esercito ben organizzato contro un esercito di coscritti francese con la maggior parte poco corretto di leadership. The previous Dutch governor, Herman Willem Daendels , built a well-defended fortification at Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara ), and at the time, the governor, Jan Willem Janssens (who, coincidentally, surrendered to the British at the Cape Colony ), mounted a brave but ultimately futile defence at the fortress. Il precedente governatore olandese, Herman Willem Daendels, costruita ben difeso fortificazione a Mister Cornelis (ora Jatinegara), e, al momento, il governatore, Jan Willem Janssens (che, per coincidenza, di rinuncia alla British presso la colonia del Capo), montato Un coraggioso, ma in ultima analisi inutile a difesa della fortezza. The English, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort and captured it within three hours. L'inglese, guidata dal colonnello Gillespie, assalto il forte e catturato entro tre ore. Janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured. Janssens cercato di fuggire ma è stato catturato di navigazione interna. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days, with Raffles appointed the Lieutenant-Governor by Lord Minto before hostilities formally ceased. Il British invasione di Java ha avuto un totale di quarantacinque giorni, con Raffles nominato il tenente governatore di Lord Minto prima formalmente cessato le ostilità. He took his residence at Buitenzorg and despite having a small subset of Englishmen as his senior staff, he kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. Ha preso la sua residenza a Buitenzorg e pur avendo un piccolo sottoinsieme di inglesi come suoi alti funzionari, ha conservato molti dei funzionari olandese nella struttura governativa. He also negotiated peace and mounted some small military expeditions against local princes to subjugate them to British rule, as well a takeover of Bangka Island to set up a permanent British presence in the area in the case of the return of Java to Dutch rule after the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe. Egli ha inoltre negoziato di pace e montate alcune piccole spedizioni militari contro i principi locali per sottomettere al loro dominio britannico, e una acquisizione di Bangka Isola di istituire una presenza permanente britannico nella zona in caso di ritorno al di Java olandese dopo la regola Fine della guerra, della sesta Coalizione in Europa. His ability to speak Malay allowed him to communicate well with the Temenggong and Tengku Hussein. La sua capacità di parlare Malay gli permetteva di comunicare bene con la Temenggong e Tengku Hussein.
During his governorship, Raffles introduced partial self-government , stopped the slave trade, became an early opponent of the Opium trade by placing strict limitations upon its importation, much to the dismay of Calcutta, led an expedition to rediscover and restore Borobudur and other ancient monuments, and replaced the Dutch forced agriculture system with a land tenure system of land management, probably influenced by the earlier writings of Dirk van Hogendorp . Durante il suo governatorato, il Raffles introdotto parziale autogoverno, fermato il commercio di schiavi, è diventata uno dei primi Opium avversario del commercio, ponendo severe limitazioni al momento della sua importazione, molto per la costernazione di Calcutta, ha portato ad una spedizione per ritrovare e ripristinare Borobudur, e di altri antichi Monumenti, e ha sostituito l'olandese costretto l'agricoltura con un sistema di terra sistema di gestione del territorio, probabilmente influenzate dai precedenti scritti di Dirk Van Hogendorp. He also changed the Dutch colonies to the British system of driving on the left. [ citation needed ] Egli ha anche cambiato il olandese colonie britanniche per il sistema di guida a sinistra.
Statue of Sir Stamford Raffles in Singapore, based on the original by Thomas Woolner Statua di Sir Stamford Raffles di Singapore, basata sulla versione originale di Thomas classicismo Under the harsh conditions of the island, Olivia died on November 26th , 1814, an event that devastated Raffles. Sotto le dure condizioni dell 'isola, Olivia è morto il 26 novembre 1814, un evento che ha devastato Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England after the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars , under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 , but not before he was officially replaced by John Fendall on account of the failure of the colony financially during his administration, as deemed by the successors of Lord Minto in Calcutta. Nel 1815, lasciò nuovamente per l'Inghilterra dopo l'isola di Java, è tornato per il controllo dei Paesi Bassi dopo le guerre napoleoniche, secondo i termini della anglo-olandese trattato del 1814, ma non prima che egli è stato ufficialmente sostituito da John Fendall sul conto di Il fallimento della colonia finanziariamente durante la sua amministrazione, come ritenuto dai successori di Lord Minto a Calcutta. He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name, and en route, visited Napoleon , who was in exile at St. Ha navigato in Inghilterra all'inizio del 1816 per cancellare il suo nome, e in viaggio, ha visitato Napoleone, che era in esilio a St Helena , but found him unpleasant and unimpressive. Helena, ma lui trovato sgradevole e inefficace.
Interlude in Inghilterra
In 1817, Raffles wrote and published a book entitled History of Java , describing the history of the island from ancient times. Nel 1817, il Raffles ha scritto e pubblicato un libro intitolato Storia di Java, che descrivono la storia dell 'isola dai tempi antichi. In 1817 he was knighted by the prince regent, to whose daughter, Princess Charlotte, Princess Royal he was particularly close. Nel 1817 è stato nominato cavaliere dal principe reggente, a cui figlia, la principessa Charlotte, Princess Royal è stato particolarmente vicino. At the publication of the book, he also stopped using the name "Thomas", preferring to use his middle name, "Stamford", possibly to avoid confusion amongst his associates with Sir Thomas Sevestre or his cousin who bore the same name. Alla pubblicazione del libro, ma ha anche smesso di utilizzare il nome "Tommaso", preferendo utilizzare il suo secondo nome, "Stamford", forse per evitare confusione tra i suoi soci con Sir Thomas Sevestre o cugino, che portava lo stesso nome. On 22 February , he married his second wife, Sophia Hull. Il 22 febbraio, ha sposato la sua seconda moglie, Sophia Hull.
He was appointed as the Governor-General of Bencoolen (now Bengkulu ) on 15 October , 1817, and set sail to take the post with his new wife. Egli è stato nominato governatore generale del Bencoolen (oggi Bengkulu), il 15 ottobre, 1817, e salpare a prendere il posto con la sua nuova moglie.
Bencoolen e Malaya
Raffles arrived in Bencoolen on 19 March , 1818. Raffles Bencoolen arrivato in data 19 marzo 1818. Despite the prestige connected with the title, Bencoolen was a colonial backwater whose only real export was pepper and only the murder of a previous Resident, Thomas Parr, gained it any attention back home in Britain. Nonostante il prestigio connesso con il titolo, è stato un Bencoolen coloniale landa il cui unico vero pepe e di esportazione è stata solo l'omicidio di un precedente residente, Thomas Parr, ha guadagnato l'attenzione qualsiasi ritorno a casa in Gran Bretagna. Raffles found the place wretched, and set about for reforms immediately, mostly similar to what he had done in Java - abolishing slavery and limiting cockfighting and such games. Raffles trovato il luogo miseri, e di fissare per le riforme subito, per lo più simili a ciò che aveva fatto in Java - abolizione della schiavitù e di limitare i combattimenti di galli e di tali giochi. To replace the slaves, he used a contingent of convicts , already sent to him from India. Per sostituire gli schiavi, ha utilizzato un contingente dei condannati, già inviato a lui da India. It is at this point when he realized the importance of a British presence that both challenged the Dutch hegemony in the area and could remain consistently profitable, unlike Bencoolen or Batavia. E 'a questo punto, quando aveva realizzato l'importanza di una presenza britannica che sia contestata l'egemonia olandese nella zona, e potrebbe rimanere costantemente redditizie, a differenza Bencoolen o Batavia. However, the strategic importance of poorly-maintained but well-positioned British possessions such as Penang or Bencoolen made it impossible for the British to abandon such unprofitable colonies in such close proximity to the Dutch in Java. Tuttavia, l'importanza strategica del mal mantenuti ma ben posizionato britannico beni quali Penang Bencoolen o reso impossibile per i britannici ad abbandonare tali non redditizie colonie in prossimità di tali olandesi nel Java. The competition in the area, between Raffles and the aggressive Dutch de jure Governor, Elout, certainly led at least in part to the later Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 . La concorrenza nel settore, tra l'aggressiva Raffles e olandese de iure Governatore, Elout, certamente portato, almeno in parte, al più tardi anglo-olandese trattato del 1824. Raffles looked into alternatives in the area - namely Bangka, which had been ceded to the Dutch after its conquest by the British during its occupation of Java. Raffles esaminato le alternative in materia - vale a Bangka, che era stata ceduta alla società olandese, dopo la sua conquista da parte britannici durante la sua occupazione del Java.
Bintan was also under consideration. Bintan è stata inoltre in esame. Despite the fact that Warren Hastings overlooked the island before settling upon Penang in 1786, the Riau Archipelago was an attractive choice just to the south of the Malay Peninsula , for its proximity to Malacca . Nonostante il fatto che Warren Hastings trascurato l'isola prima di stabilizzarsi su Penang nel 1786, l'Arcipelago Riau è stata una scelta poco attraente per il sud della penisola malese, per la sua prossimità a Malacca. In his correspondences with Calcutta, Raffles also emphasized the need to establish a certain amount of influence with the native chiefs, which had greatly waned since the return of the Dutch. Nella sua corrispondenza con Calcutta, il Raffles anche sottolineato la necessità di stabilire una certa quantità di influenza con la nativa capi, che era notevolmente diminuita dal momento del ritorno del olandese. Raffles sent Thomas Travers as an ambassador to the Dutch, to possibly negotiate an expansion of British economic interests. Raffles inviato Thomas Travers come un ambasciatore olandese, a negoziare un eventuale espansione della British interessi economici. When this failed, and when Raffles' own expeditions into his new dominion found only treacherous terrain and few exportable goods, his desire to establish a better British presence was cemented. Quando questo falliti, e quando Raffles proprie spedizioni nel suo nuovo dominio trovato terreno e traditori solo pochi prodotti esportabili, il suo desiderio di creare un migliore presenza britannica è stata cementata.
However, the Anglo-Dutch Convention of 1814 was not completely clear, especially on the issue of certain possessions such as Padang . Tuttavia, l'anglo-olandese Convenzione del 1814 non è stato del tutto chiaro, soprattutto in merito alla questione di alcuni beni, come Padang. The Convention of 1814 only returned Dutch territory that was held before 1803, amongst which Padang was not one of them. La Convenzione del 1814 solo restituito territorio olandese, che si è tenuto prima di 1803, tra i quali Padang non era uno di loro. Raffles asserted the British claim personally, leading a small expedition to the Sultanate of Minangkabau . Raffles affermato il British rivendicare personalmente, a capo di una piccola spedizione nel sultanato di micmac. Yet, as Raffles confirmed with the sultan regarding the absolute British influence of the area, he realized that the local rulers had only limited power over the well-cultivated and civilized country, and the treaty was largely symbolic and had little actual force. Eppure, come ha confermato Raffles con il sultano per quanto riguarda l'assoluta influenza britannica della zona, ha realizzato che la governanti locali avevano solo limitato potere sulle ben coltivati e paese civile, e il trattato è stato in gran parte simbolica e aveva poco effettivo vigore.
The founding of Singapore
Meanwhile, Major William Farquhar , the British Resident of Malacca, had been attempting to negotiate commercial treaties with the local chiefs of the Riau Archipelago, especially with the heads of the Sultanate of Johore . Nel frattempo, il maggiore William H., il britannico residente di Malacca, era stato il tentativo di negoziare trattati commerciali con i capi dei locali Riau Archipelago, in particolare con i capi del sultanato di Johore. Due to the death and subsequent turmoil of the sultanate at the time of Farquhar's arrival, Farquhar was compelled to sign the treaty not with the official head of the sultanate, but rather, the Raja Muda (Regent or Crown Prince) of Riau. A causa della morte e le successive turbolenze del sultanato al momento l'arrivo di Dracula, Dracula è stato costretto a firmare il trattato di non ufficiali con la testa del sultanato, ma piuttosto, il Raja Muda (Regent o principe ereditario) di Riau. Noting it as a success and reporting it as such back to Raffles, Raffles sailed to Calcutta in late 1818 to personally secure a British presence in the Riau area, especially Singapura , which was favored by both him through the readings of Malayan histories and by Farquhar's explorations. Rilevando come un successo e la segnalazione come tale torna a Raffles, il Raffles navigato a Calcutta alla fine del 1818 per garantire personalmente un britannico Riau presenza nel settore, in particolare Singapura, che è stata favorita da lui sia attraverso la lettura di storie e malese da François 'Esplorazioni.
Despite Lord Hastings' less-than-stellar opinion of Raffles before (which had necessitated his trip to England to clear his name at the end of his tenure as Governor-General of Java), the now well-connected and successful Raffles was able to secure the permission to set up a settlement where in Malaysian history the name Lion City was applied and was in a strategically advantageous position. Nonostante Signore Hastings' meno di quelli stellari parere del Raffles prima (che aveva richiesto il suo viaggio in Inghilterra per cancellare il suo nome, alla fine del suo mandato come governatore generale di Java), l'ormai ben collegata e di successo è stato in grado di Raffles Garantire il permesso di creare una soluzione in Malaysia, dove la storia della città il nome di Leone è stata applicata e si trovava in una posizione strategicamente vantaggiosa. However, he was not to provoke the Dutch, and his actions were officially disavowed. Tuttavia, egli non era di provocare l'olandese, e le sue azioni sono state ufficialmente smentita. Despite the best efforts in London by authorities such as the Viscount Castlereagh to quell Dutch fears and the continuing efforts to reach an agreement between the nations that eventually became the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of London of 1824, as well as to send instructions to Raffles to undertake far less intrusive actions, the distance between the Far East and Europe had meant that the orders had no chance of reaching Raffles in time for his venture to start. Nonostante i migliori sforzi di Londra da parte di autorità come il Castlereagh olandese di sedare i timori e proseguire gli sforzi per raggiungere un accordo tra le nazioni che poi divenne la anglo-olandese Trattato di Londra del 1824, nonché le istruzioni per l'invio di Raffles Intraprendere azioni molto meno intrusivo, la distanza tra l'Estremo Oriente e l'Europa ha fatto sì che gli ordini non aveva alcuna possibilità di raggiungere Raffles in tempo per la sua impresa per iniziare.
Establishment
After a brief survey of the Karimun Islands , on 29 January 1819 , he established a free-trade post at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. Dopo una breve panoramica della Karimun Isole, il 29 gennaio 1819, ha istituito un posto di libero scambio alla punta meridionale della penisola malese. It was established that there was no Dutch presence on the island of Singapore. È stato accertato che non vi era alcuna presenza olandese sull'isola di Singapore. Johore also no longer had any control of the area, so contact was made with the local Temenggong, or Raja. Johore anche non aveva più il controllo della zona, è stato fatto in modo contatto con la locale Temenggong, o Raja. The contacts were friendly and Raffles, knowledgeable about the muddled political situation, took advantage to provide a rudimentary treaty between the nominal chiefs of the area that called for the exclusivity of trade and the English protection of the area. I contatti sono stati amichevoli e Raffles, conosce la confusa situazione politica, ha approfittato di fornire una rudimentale trattato tra il valore nominale capi della zona, che ha chiesto l'esclusiva del commercio e la protezione inglese della zona. Members of Raffles' party surveyed the island and proceeded to request the presence of the sultan, or whoever at the time had supreme nominal power, to sign a formal treaty, while Major Farquhar was ordered to do the same in Rhio. Raffles deputati del partito di rilevazione l'isola e ha proceduto a richiedere la presenza del sultano, o chi a suo tempo aveva suprema potenza nominale, a firmare un trattato formale, mentre Major Evans, è stata condannata a fare lo stesso nel Rhio. A few days later, the formal treaty signed by a man who claimed to be the "lawful sovereign of the whole of territories extending from Lingen and Johore to Mount Muar ". Pochi giorni dopo, la formale trattato firmato da un uomo che sosteneva di essere il "legittimo sovrano di tutta l'estensione dei territori da Lingen e Johore Muar a monte". This man was Tengku Long , who, although having had no previous contact with the British, had certainly heard of the might of the British navy and was in no position to argue against the terms. Questo uomo è stato Tengku Long, che, pur avendo avuto alcun precedente contatto con i britannici, aveva sicuramente sentito parlare della potenza della marina britannica e non era in grado di argomentare contro i termini. However, Raffles was able to charm the man and reassure him of that the Dutch posed no threat in the area. Tuttavia, il Raffles fascino è stato in grado di rassicurare l'uomo e di lui che gli olandesi non minaccia posta nella zona. Farquhar's attempt to establish a more favorable treaty in Rhio was met with greater challenge, as the Dutch were present and made for a rather awkward position. H. Il tentativo di stabilire un più favorevole è stato trattato in Rhio ha incontrato maggiori difficoltà, come gli olandesi erano presenti e per un fatto piuttosto scomoda posizione. The Dutch were justifiably alarmed and sent a small contingent to the island. Gli olandesi sono stati giustamente allarmato e ha inviato un piccolo contingente per l'isola. Despite a covert offer of subterfuge against the Dutch offered by the Raja of Rhio, Farquhar returned and an official protest was sent by the Raja to Java regarding the matter. Nonostante una offerta di sotterfugio scoperto contro gli olandesi offerte dal Raja di Rhio, François restituiti e da un funzionario di protesta è stata inviata dalla Raja a Java per quanto riguarda la questione in esame.
Raffles declared the foundation of what was to become modern Singapore on 6 February , securing transfer of control of the island to the East India Company. Raffles dichiarato la fondazione di quello che sarebbe diventato moderno Singapore il 6 febbraio, assicurare il trasferimento del controllo dell 'isola per la Compagnia delle Indie Orientali. Much pomp and ceremony was done, and the official treaty was read aloud in languages representing all nations present, as well as the Malay and Chinese inhabitants. Molto sfarzo e la cerimonia è stato fatto, e il funzionario trattato è stato letto ad alta voce in lingue che rappresentano tutte le nazioni presenti, come pure malese e cinese abitanti. Farquhar was officially named the Resident of Singapore as Raffles was named as "Agent to the Most Noble the Governor-General with the States of Rhio, Lingin and Johor". Evans è stato ufficialmente nominato i residenti come Raffles di Singapore, è stato nominato "Agente per la maggior parte di Noble il governatore generale con gli Stati del Rhio, Lingin e Johor." Although ownership of the post was to be exclusively British, explicit orders were given to Farquhar to maintain free passage of ships through the Strait of Singapore and a small military presence was established alongside the trading post. Sebbene la proprietà del posto doveva essere esclusivamente britannico, è stato dato ordine esplicito di Evans a mantenere libero passaggio di navi, attraverso lo stretto di Singapore e una piccola presenza militare è stata istituita con la negoziazione Post. After issuing orders to Farquhar and the remaining Europeans, Raffles left the next day, 7 February , 1819. Dopo l'emissione di ordini di Dracula e per il restante europei, il Raffles lasciato il giorno successivo, il 7 febbraio 1819.
Achin, and the early conflict/crisis with the Dutch
Raffles also planned to start a British presence in Achin , at the northern tip of Sumatra. Raffles anche in programma di avviare una presenza in Achin britannico, a punta settentrionale di Sumatra. As soon as he left, the Raja of Rhio sent letters to the Dutch, claiming innocence and a British encroachment. Non appena ha lasciato, il Raja di Rhio inviato lettere agli olandesi, sostenendo l'innocenza e di un intervento britannico. The Dutch in Malacca acted at once, and ordered that no Malays could go to Singapore. Gli olandesi a Malacca agito in una sola volta, e ha ordinato che nessun Malaysiana potrebbe andare a Singapore. Raffles' bold claim of Singapore created a curious geographic situation where although Penang was clearly closer distance-wise to Singapore, Raffles, in his capacity as the Governor-General of Bencoolen, was in control. Raffles' grassetto rivendicazione di Singapore ha creato una curiosa situazione geografica dove Penang, anche se era chiaramente più stretta distanza - saggio di Singapore, il Raffles, nella sua veste di governatore generale di Bencoolen, era sotto controllo. This undoubtedly irked the authorities in Penang to the point where they refused to send any sepoys to Singapore to complete the garrison. Questo senza dubbio irritato le autorità di Penang al punto in cui si è rifiutato di inviare qualsiasi sepoys a Singapore per completare la guarnigione. Official Dutch complaints came before the end of the month, and Raffles attempted to appease the situation by instructing Farquhar to not interfere with the politics of surrounding islands. Gazzetta olandese denunce è venuto prima della fine del mese, e Raffles tentato di calmare la situazione da istruire Evans a non interferire con la politica delle isole circostanti. Despite numerous threats and serious considerations by the Dutch Governor-General in Java, the Dutch did not take any military action. Nonostante le numerose minacce e gravi considerazioni dagli olandesi governatore generale in Java, per l'olandese non ha preso alcuna azione militare.
The muddled political situation in Johore and Rhio also created a certain uneasiness and instability for the two nations. La confusa situazione politica in Johore e Rhio anche creato un certo disagio e di instabilità per le due nazioni. Turku Long was claimed to be a pretender to the throne, and since the succession laws in the Malay sultanates were not as clear cut as, for example, the Salic laws of Europe, the treaties signed between native rulers and the European powers always seemed to be on the verge of being invalidated, especially if a sultan is deposed by one of his siblings or other pretenders. Turku a lungo è stato rivendicato da un pretendente al trono, e dal momento che la successione delle leggi nel sultanato malese non erano così chiari come, ad esempio, le leggi salica d'Europa, i trattati firmati tra governanti e nativo le potenze europee è sempre sembrata Essere sul punto di essere invalidata, soprattutto se è un sultano deposto da uno dei suoi fratelli o di altri pretendenti.
Nevertheless, amidst the uncertainty and intrigue, Raffles landed in Achin on 14 March , 1819, with the begrudging help of Penang. Tuttavia, tra l'incertezza e di intrighi, il Raffles Achin sbarcati in data 14 marzo 1819, con l'aiuto di Penang insufficiente. Once again, it seems that multiple people were in power, but none wanted to formally deal with the British. Ancora una volta, sembra che le persone erano più al potere, ma nessuno ha voluto formalmente trattare con gli inglesi. The hostile atmosphere created allowed for Raffles to cancel the only meeting he was able to arrange, with Panglima Polim , a powerful divisional chief, fearing treachery. L'atmosfera ostile creato per Raffles consentito di annullare la riunione solo egli è stato in grado di organizzare, con Panglima Polim, un potente capo divisionale, per timore di tradimento. As the influential merchant John Palmer , Raffles, and fellow commissioner John Monckton Coombs of Penang sat offshore, waiting for a response, Calcutta debated whether to reinforce Singapore or not. Come l'influente mercante John Palmer, il Raffles, e collega commissario Giovanni Lane Coombs di Penang seduto in mare aperto, in attesa di una risposta, se Calcutta discusso a rafforzare Singapore o no. Evacuation plans were made, but the Dutch never acted and finally Lord Hastings prompted Colonel Bannerman, the Governor of Penang, to send funds to reinforce Singapore. Piani di evacuazione sono state fatte, ma gli olandesi non hanno agito e, infine, Signore Hastings colonnello Bannerman richiesto, il Governatore di Penang, per inviare i fondi per rafforzare Singapore.
Raffles finally was able to convince his fellow commissioners to sign a treaty with Jauhar al-Alam Shah, the ruler of Achin, which placed a British resident as well as the exclusivity of trade. Raffles infine, è stato in grado di convincere i suoi colleghi commissari a firmare un trattato con Gulshan-e-Jauhar al Shah Alam, il principe del Achin, che ha messo un residente britannico, nonché l'esclusività del commercio. By the time Raffles returned to Singapore, on 31 May , much of the immediate crisis that the establishment of the colony have caused in both Penang and Calcutta have passed. Per il momento in Raffles tornato a Singapore, il 31 maggio, molto più immediata della crisi che l'istituzione della colonia hanno causato in entrambe le Penang e Calcutta sono passati. By then, the initial five-hundred villagers have grown to become five-thousand merchants, soldiers, and administrators on the island. Per allora, l'iniziale di cinque centinaio di abitanti hanno cresciuta fino a diventare cinque mille mercanti, soldati, e gli amministratori sull'isola. Raffles was determined to both destroy the Dutch monopoly in the area and create a gateway to the trade with China and Japan, the latter nation he attempted and failed to reach while governing Java. Raffles era determinato a distruggere entrambi gli olandesi di monopolio nel settore e di creare un gateway per il commercio con la Cina e il Giappone, quest'ultimo ha tentato nazione e non è riuscita a raggiungere mentre disciplinano Java.
The first year of Singapore
While in Singapore, Raffles readily established schools and churches in the native languages. Mentre a Singapore, il Raffles prontamente istituito scuole e chiese le lingue native. Rather, he allowed for missionaries and local businesses to flourish. Piuttosto, è stata accolta per i missionari e le imprese locali di prosperare. Certain colonial aspects remained: a European town was quickly built to segregate the population, separated by a river; carriage roads were built and cantonments constructed for the soldiers. Alcuni aspetti coloniale rimasta: una città europea è stata costruita per separare rapidamente la popolazione, separati da un fiume; Trasporto stradale sono stati costruiti e cantonments costruito per i soldati. Otherwise, however, no duties were imposed and confident that Farquhar have followed his instructions well, he sailed for Bencoolen once again on 28 June . In caso contrario, tuttavia, non sono stati imposti dazi e François fiducioso che hanno seguito le sue istruzioni e, ha navigato per Bencoolen ancora una volta il 28 giugno.
Bencoolen, once again
Raffles was still the Governor-General of Bencoolen and having returned to it after the settling of Singapore, Raffles started more reforms that were, by now, almost trademarks of his reign upon colonies. Raffles era ancora il governatore generale di Bencoolen e dopo aver restituito ad essa dopo la liquidazione di Singapore, il Raffles iniziato più riforme che sono state, per ora, quasi marchi di fabbrica del suo regno su colonie. Forced labor was abolished when he first arrived, and he declared Bencoolen a free port as well. Lavoro forzato è stata abolita, quando giunsero per la prima volta, e ha dichiarato Bencoolen una porta libera pure. Currency was regulated and as he had an excess of out-of-work civil servants , formed committees to advise him in the running of the colony. Cambio è stato regolamentato e come ha avuto un eccesso di fuori di lavoro di funzionari pubblici, formato comitati di consigliare lui nella gestione della colonia. However, Bencoolen was not as self-sufficient as Singapore. Tuttavia, non è stato poi così Bencoolen autosufficiente come Singapore. The area was poor and disease-ridden, and the first reports from the committees reflected very poorly upon the condition of the colony. L'area è stata povera e afflitta da malattia, e le prime relazioni da parte delle commissioni riflette molto poco sulla condizione della colonia. Unlike the salutary neglect Raffles granted upon Singapore, he slowed the European-inspired reforms and emphasized on the cultivation of whatever land that was available. A differenza del salutare trascurare concesso su Raffles di Singapore, ha ridotto la frequenza di ispirazione europea sulle riforme ed ha messo in evidenza la coltivazione di qualunque terra che era disponibile. Native authorities were given power in their respective districts and were answerable only to the Governor-General. Native autorità hanno avuto il potere nei loro rispettivi distretti e sono stati chiamati a rispondere solo per il governatore generale. The slave-debtor system was brought in in exchange instead of the old slavery system that Raffles abolished in Java, Borneo, and initially in Bencoolen. La tratta degli schiavi - debitore sistema è stato introdotto in cambio al posto del vecchio sistema che Raffles schiavitù abolita in Java, Borneo, e inizialmente in Bencoolen. Slave-debtors were registered, and educational reforms started to focus on the children instead of the entire population. Slave - debitori sono stati registrati, e di istruzione riforme iniziato a concentrarsi sui bambini, al posto di tutta la popolazione. Raffles was looking into a long-term plan for a slow reform of Bencoolen. Raffles stava cercando in un piano a lungo termine per una lenta riforma del Bencoolen.
Unlike many other European colonizers, Raffles did not impose upon the colonized the language, culture, or other aspects of the colonizer. A differenza di molti altri paesi europei colonizzatori, il Raffles non imporre alle colonizzato la lingua, la cultura, o di altri aspetti della colonizzatrice. In addition to preserving the artifacts , fauna , and flora of his colonies, he also allowed religious freedom in his colonies, especially important as the Malay states were largely Muslim . In aggiunta a preservare la artefatti, della fauna, della flora e delle sue colonie, ma ha anche consentito la libertà religiosa nelle sue colonie, di particolare importanza per quanto malese, erano stati in gran parte musulmana. However, Christian schools, especially schools for the very young and impressionable, were started by missionaries in all of his colonies. Tuttavia, scuole cristiane, in particolare le scuole per l'infanzia e impressionanti, sono stati avviati da missionari in tutte le sue colonie.
Consolidation of the Eastern Isles
The death of Colonel Bannerman of Penang in October 1819 brought upon a new opportunity for Raffles to expand his power to also include the other minor British factories and outposts from Sumatra to Cochin China . La morte del colonnello Bannerman di Penang nel mese di ottobre 1819 ha portato ad una nuova opportunità per Raffles per espandere il suo potere di inserire anche le altre piccole fabbriche britanniche e avamposti da Sumatra a Cochin Cina. He sailed to Calcutta and as Lord Hastings sought to consolidate all of the small British possessions in the East Indies . Egli ha navigato a Calcutta e come Signore Hastings cercato di consolidare tutti i possedimenti di piccole britannico Indie orientali. During his sojourn, he had the opportunity to argue for free trade and the protection of the private enterprise. Durante il suo soggiorno, egli ha avuto l'opportunità di discutere per il libero scambio e la protezione delle imprese private. Education and the retention of small British outposts were also discussed. Istruzione e la conservazione dei piccoli avamposti britannici sono stati oggetto di discussione.
The Dutch claim on the Sultanate of Johore and hence, Rhio, and the diplomatic exchanges between Baron Godert van der Capellen and Calcutta continued throughout this time. Gli olandesi affermano sul sultanato di Johore e, di conseguenza, Rhio, e gli scambi diplomatici fra Godert barone Van der Capellen Calcutta e continuato durante tutto questo tempo. The legitimacy of the British treaties were also questioned once again, but finally, as Singapore grew at an exponential rate, the Dutch gave up their claim on the island, allowing the colony to continue as a British possession. La legittimità dei britannici sono stati trattati anche interrogato ancora una volta, ma finalmente, come Singapore è cresciuto a un ritmo esponenziale, gli olandesi hanno dato il loro rivendicazione sull'isola, consentendo di continuare la colonia britannica come un possesso. However, the pressures put upon Calcutta ensured that no single governor of all British possessions in the Strait or on Sumatra was appointed, and Raffles, whose health was slowly ailing, returned to Bencoolen. Tuttavia, le pressioni esercitate su di Calcutta garantire che nessun singolo governatore britannico di tutti i beni in o su Stretto di Sumatra è stato nominato, e Raffles, la cui salute è stata lentamente in difficoltà, tornò a Bencoolen.
Administration of Bencoolen, 1820 - 1822
Raffles returned to Bencoolen in ill-health, but as his health improved, he continued on his quest to learn about the island which he now called home. Raffles tornato a Bencoolen in cattive condizioni di salute, ma la sua salute è migliorata, egli ha continuato sulla sua ricerca per conoscere l'isola, che ha ora chiamato a casa. He studied the Batta cannibals of Tappanooly and their rituals and laws regarding the consumption of human flesh, writing in detail about the transgressions that warranted such an act as well as their methods. Ha studiato la Batta Tappanooly di cannibali e la loro riti e le leggi in materia di consumo di carne umana, iscritto nel dettaglio circa le trasgressioni che giustifica un tale atto, nonché i loro metodi. He also noted the rise of the Sikh religion in certain parts of Sumatra. Egli ha anche notato l'aumento della religione Sikh in alcune parti di Sumatra.
By early 1820, Tunku Long had firmly established himself as the Sultan of Johore to the British, but the political situation in the area remains a befuddled mess, with the old sultan dying and many new ones attempting to gain either the crown or regency. Entro l'inizio del 1820, quindici Long aveva fermamente stabilito se stesso come il sultano di Johore per i britannici, ma la situazione politica nella regione rimane un pasticcio eccessivamente, con il vecchio sultano morendo e molti nuovi tentativo di acquisire o la corona o reggenza. As Farquhar was involving himself poorly in local politics, Raffles appointed Travers as the Resident of Singapore, replacing Farquhar. Come è stato François coinvolgendo se stesso mal di politica locale, il Raffles Travers nominato come il residente di Singapore, in sostituzione di François. Upon his arrival, Travers found the colony a delightful smörgåsbord of different races and cultures, numbering over six thousand, and the Singapore trade was slowly overtaking the Java trade. Al suo arrivo, la colonia Travers trovato un delizioso dimenticato di diverse razze e culture, di numerazione oltre sei mila, e il commercio di Singapore è stata lentamente il sorpasso Java commercio.
As in Java, Raffles collected samples of local species of plants and animals, as well as described them in his journals. Come in Java, il Raffles raccolti campioni di specie locali di piante e di animali, così come descritto nelle sue riviste. He also described other local tribes and their customs, especially their religions and laws. Egli ha inoltre descritto le altre tribù locali, e le loro abitudini, in particolare della loro religioni e le leggi. He brought the island of Nias under British rule as well, noting its more civilized state and production of rice. Egli ha proposto l'isola di Nias sotto dominio britannico e, notando il suo stato più civile e la produzione di riso.
Yet, the production of food remained somewhat of a problem in Bencoolen. Eppure, la produzione di cibo è rimasta un po 'di un problema in Bencoolen. Raffles paid special attention to the agricultural methods of the Chinese , and wrote an introduction to the only issue of Proceedings of the Agricultural Society , in order to remedy this. Raffles prestato particolare attenzione ai metodi agricoli dell'economia cinese, e ha scritto una introduzione per il solo rilascio dei Proceedings della Società agricola, al fine di porre rimedio a questa. His employer, the East India Company , however, had no other concerns outside of profit, and even as Raffles lived like a country gentleman and ran his colony as an estate, his expenditures in natural preservation was frowned upon. Il suo datore di lavoro, la Compagnia delle Indie, tuttavia, non ha avuto altre preoccupazioni al di fuori del profitto, e anche come Raffles vissuto come un paese signore e la sua colonia ha funzionato come un immobiliare, il suo spese per la conservazione naturale è stato malviste. The removal of him was discussed in both Calcutta and London, while Castlereagh continued negotiations with the Dutch regarding the ongoing diplomatic conflicts. La rimozione di lui è stato discusso in entrambi Calcutta e Londra, mentre Castlereagh proseguito i negoziati con gli olandesi per quanto riguarda il corso diplomatica dei conflitti.
Luckily, the Singapore issue had its supporters in the House, so as negotiations went on in Europe, Raffles remained largely idle in Bencoolen. Fortunatamente, il problema di Singapore ha avuto i suoi sostenitori in Parlamento, così come i negoziati sono andati in Europa, il Raffles è rimasto in gran parte inattivo a Bencoolen. The only major issue, outside of the politics of local sultans, involved the replacement of Farquhar, who decided that he had no intention of leaving his post voluntarily, causing a moment of tension between him and Travers. L'unica questione importante, al di fuori della politica dei sultani locali, che operano per la sostituzione di François, che ha deciso che egli non aveva alcuna intenzione di lasciare il suo posto volontariamente, causando un momento di tensione tra lui e Travers. Raffles' request for Travers to deliver dispatches to India nullified the issue late in the year, and Farquhar remained in charge in Singapore, with its survival still in doubt for many in both India and London, who believed that it would either be handed over to the Dutch or taken violently by the Dutch at the end of Castlereagh's negotiations. Raffles' Travers richiesta di consegnare le spedizioni verso l'India, annullata la questione alla fine dell'anno, e François rimasto in carica a Singapore, con la sua sopravvivenza ancora in dubbio per molti sia in India e Londra, che hanno creduto che sarebbe essere consegnata al Olandese o prese violentemente dagli olandesi alla fine del Castlereagh's negoziati.
Farquhar, however, stirred up more trouble, conflicting especially with local English merchants over trivial matters of self-importance and overreaction over small infractions of white traders, for some of which he was reprimanded by Calcutta officially. Public works , commissioned by Raffles but undertaken by Farquhar, was becoming overwhelmingly expensive. Evans, tuttavia, suscitato maggiori problemi, soprattutto in conflitto con commercianti locali inglese oltre banali questioni di autostima e di eccessiva importanza oltre piccole infrazioni del bianco commercianti, per alcuni dei quali è stato ufficialmente rimproverati da Calcutta. Appalti pubblici di lavori, commissionati dalla Raffles ma intrapresi Da Evans, stava diventando terribilmente costoso.
Personal tragedies also started for Raffles. Tragedie personali ha avviato anche per Raffles. His eldest son, Leopold, died during an epidemic on 4 July 1821. Suo figlio maggiore, Leopold, è morto durante un'epidemia, il 4 luglio 1821. The oldest daughter, Charlotte, was also sick with dysentery by the end of the year, but it would be his youngest son, Stamford Marsden, who would perish first with the disease, 3 January , 1822, with Charlotte to follow ten days later. La più antica figlia, Charlotte, è stato anche malati di dissenteria entro la fine dell 'anno, ma sarebbe il suo figlio più giovane, Stamford Marsden, che muoia, prima con la malattia, il 3 gennaio 1822, con Charlotte a seguire dieci giorni più tardi. For the good part of four month the couple remained devastated. Per la buona parte di quattro mesi la coppia è rimasto sconvolto. The year would be eventful with the suicide of Castlereagh and the appointment of Lord Amherst as the Governor-General of India , replacing Hastings. L'anno sarebbe di avvenimenti con il suicidio di Castlereagh e la nomina di Lord Amherst come il governatore generale di India, che sostituisce Hastings. As Raffles grew restless and depressed, he decided to visit Singapore, before heading home to England. Come è cresciuta Raffles inquieto e depresso, ha deciso di visitare Singapore, prima di andare a casa in Inghilterra. Accompanying him would be his wife Sophia and only surviving child, Ella. Accompagnamento lui sarebbe la moglie Sophia e solo superstite bambino, Ella.
The Plan of the Town of Singapore , or more commonly known as the Jackson Plan . Il piano del Comune di Singapore, o, più comunemente noto come il Piano di Jackson.
[ edit ] Singapore - 1822 - 1823 [Modifica] Singapore - 1822 - 1823
Raffles was pleased at the fact that Singapore had grown exponentially in such short years. Raffles era compiaciuto per il fatto che la Conferenza di Singapore era cresciuto esponenzialmente in questi brevi anni. The colony was a bustling hub of trade and activity. La colonia è stato un vivace centro di scambi commerciali e di attività. However, Farquhar's development work was deemed unsatisfactory and Raffles drew up what is now known as the Jackson Plan , and replanned the city according to recommendations of a committee headed by the colony's engineer, Phillip Jackson. Tuttavia, il lavoro di sviluppo Evans è stata ritenuta insoddisfacente e Raffles ha elaborato quello che ora è conosciuto come il Piano di Jackson, e la città replanned secondo le raccomandazioni di una commissione presieduta dalla colonia di ingegnere, Phillip Jackson.
It was still a segregated plan, giving the best land to the Europeans, yet it was considered remarkably scientific for the time. E 'stato ancora un piano di segregazione, dando le terre migliori per gli europei, ma si è ritenuto notevolmente scientifica per il momento. It was also during the replanning and reconstruction of the town that allowed Farquhar to clash dramatically with Raffles, who had considered Farquhar unfit for the position of Resident, so Raffles took direct control with a heavy hand. E 'stato anche durante la riprogettazione e la ricostruzione del paese che ha permesso a François scontro drammaticamente con Raffles, che aveva considerato Evans inadatti per la posizione di residenti, così Raffles ha preso il controllo diretto con una mano pesante. In 1823, Raffles instituted a code of settlement for the populace, and soon followed with laws regarding the freedom of trade. Nel 1823, il Raffles istituito un codice di insediamento per la popolazione, e ben presto seguite con le leggi in materia di libertà di commercio. He also quickly instituted a registration system for all land, regardless of ownership, and the repossession of the land by the government if land remained unregistered. Egli ha anche rapidamente istituito un sistema di registrazione per tutti i terreni, a prescindere dalla proprietà, e il recupero dei terreni da parte del governo se non è rimasta terra. This act greatly asserted the power of the British government as it covered land previously owned by the Sultan as well. Questo atto notevolmente affermato il potere del governo britannico come oggetto di proprietà di terreni precedentemente il Sultano pure. A police force and magistrate was then set up, under British principles. Una forza di polizia e magistrato è stato poi istituito, sotto britannico principi. In a very short period of time, Raffles had turned a semi-anarchic trading post into a proper city with at least a semblance of order. In un lasso di tempo molto breve, il Raffles aveva acceso un semi anarchico negoziazione in un posto adeguato città con almeno una parvenza di ordine.
Repeated efforts by Raffles for Calcutta to send a replacement for Farquhar remained unanswered. I ripetuti sforzi di Calcutta Raffles per l'invio di una sostituzione di François rimasta senza risposta. As Raffles started to hint at his impending retirement, he made Johore a British protectorate, causing a protest from van der Capellen. Come Raffles cominciato a un accenno al suo imminente pensionamento, che ha fatto Johore un protettorato britannico, provocando una protesta da Van der Capellen. Finally, Calcutta appointed John Crawfurd , who had followed Raffles for over twenty years, as the Resident of Singapore. Infine, ha nominato John Crawfurd Calcutta, che aveva seguito Raffles per oltre venti anni, come il residente di Singapore. Captain William Gordon MacKenzie took over Bencoolen from Raffles. Il capitano William Gordon MacKenzie ha assunto Bencoolen da Raffles. It's March 1823, and coincidentally, on the same day he was replaced, he received an official reprimand from London for the takeover of Nias. E 'marzo 1823, e per coincidenza, lo stesso giorno egli è stato sostituito, egli ha ricevuto una reprimenda ufficiale da Londra per l'acquisizione di Nias.
With politics against him, Raffles finally turned back to the natural sciences. Con la politica contro di lui, il Raffles finalmente tornato indietro per le scienze naturali. He gave a speech regarding the opening of a Malay college in Singapore that heavily involved his observations of his years in Southeast Asia and the importance of both the local and the European languages. Egli ha pronunciato un discorso per quanto riguarda l'apertura di un collegio malese a Singapore che fortemente coinvolti sue osservazioni dei suoi anni nel Sudest asiatico e l'importanza di entrambi gli enti locali e le lingue europee. Raffles personally gave $2000 towards the effort, as the East India Company gave $4000. Raffles ha dato personalmente $ sforzo verso il 2000, come l'East India Company ha dato $ 4000.
In 1823, Raffles drafted the first constitution for Singapore, which followed a fairly moralistic stance, outlawing gaming and slavery. Nel 1823, il Raffles redatto la prima costituzione di Singapore, che ha seguito un atteggiamento abbastanza moralista, che proibisce la schiavitù e di gioco. A specific regulation in the constitution called for the multiethnic population of Singapore to remain as is, and there shall be no crimes based on being a race. Un regolamento specifico nella costituzione chiamato per la popolazione multietnica di Singapore rimanere come è, e non deve avere crimini essendo basata su una gara. He then went to work drafting laws, defining on exactly "what" constituted a crime. Egli ha poi al lavoro redazionale disposizioni legislative, che definiscono esattamente il "cosa" costituiva un crimine. Finally, on 9 July , 1823, feeling that his work on establishing Singapore was finished, he boarded a ship for home, but not before a stop in Batavia to visit his old home and adversary, van der Capellen. Infine, il 9 luglio, 1823, sensazione che il suo lavoro sulla creazione di Singapore è stata ultimata, ha fermato una nave per la casa, ma non prima di una sosta in Batavia a visitare il suo vecchio avversario casa e, Van der Capellen. A final stop in Bencoolen ensued, and finally, a voyage home, interrupted by a harrowing experience when one of the ships caught fire off Rat Island, which claimed many of his drawings and papers. Un'ultima sosta in Bencoolen seguite, e, infine, un viaggio a casa, interrotto da una straziante esperienza, quando una delle navi che ha preso fuoco al largo Rat Island, che ha causato molti dei suoi disegni e documenti.
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 finally settled the score in the East Indies. L'anglo-olandese trattato del 1824 stabilì infine il punteggio in Indie orientali. The British gained dominance in the north, while the entirety of Sumatra became Dutch. Il British acquisito una posizione dominante nel nord, mentre la totalità di Sumatra, è diventato l'olandese. The Malay Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent were both free of Dutch interference. La penisola malese e il subcontinente indiano sono stati entrambi privi di interferenze olandese.
Raffles finally returned to England 22 August , 1824, over a year after he left Singapore. Raffles finalmente tornato in Inghilterra 22 agosto 1824, oltre un anno dopo aver lasciato Singapore. His longest tenure in Singapore was only eight months, but he was considered the father of Singapore nevertheless. La sua lunga permanenza a Singapore era solo otto mesi, ma è stato considerato il padre, tuttavia, di Singapore.
England and death
Upon arrival in England in poor health, both Sir and Lady Raffles convalesced in Cheltenham until September, after which he entertained distinguished guests in both London and his home. All'arrivo in Inghilterra nel cattive condizioni di salute, sia Sir e Lady Raffles convalescenza a Cheltenham fino a settembre, dopo di che ha intrattenuto illustri ospiti in entrambi Londra e la sua casa. He also made considerations to run for parliament during this time, but this ambition was never realized. Egli ha anche reso considerazioni a funzionare per il parlamento durante questo lasso di tempo, ma questa ambizione non è mai stato realizzato. He moved to London at the end of November, just in time to have a war of words in front of the Court of Directors of the EIC regarding Singapore with Farquhar, who had also arrived in London. Si trasferì a Londra alla fine di novembre, appena in tempo per avere una guerra di parole di fronte alla Corte di Amministrazione di EIC in materia di Singapore con Evans, che era arrivato anche a Londra. Despite several severe charges put upon Raffles, Farquhar was ultimately unable to discredit him and was denied a chance to be restored to Singapore, but he was given a military promotion instead. Nonostante i numerosi gravi oneri mettere su Raffles, Evans è stato in ultima analisi in grado di screditare gli è stato negato e la possibilità di essere ripristinata a Singapore, ma è stata fornita una promozione militare.
With the Singapore matter settled, Raffles turned to his other great hobby - botany. Con la questione risolta Singapore, il Raffles rivolti alla sua altra grande passione - botanica. Raffles was a founder (in 1825) and first president (elected April 1826) of the Zoological Society of London and the London Zoo . Raffles è stato uno dei fondatori (nel 1825) e primo presidente (eletto aprile 1826) della Zoological Society of London e il London Zoo. Meanwhile, he was not only not granted a pension , but was called to pay over twenty-two thousand pounds sterling for the losses incurred during his administrations. Nel frattempo, egli non solo non è stata concessa una pensione, ma è stato chiamato a pagare più di ventidue migliaia di sterline per le perdite subite durante la sua amministrazione. Raffles replied and clarified his actions, and moved to his country estate, Highwood, but before the issue was resolved, he was already much too ill. Raffles risposto e chiarito le sue azioni, e si è trasferita nel suo paese immobiliare, Highwood, ma prima che il problema è stato risolto, era già troppo malato.
He died in London , England , a day before his forty-fifth birthday, on July 5 , 1826 , of apoplexy . È morto a Londra, Inghilterra, un giorno prima della sua quaranta quinto compleanno, il 5 luglio 1826, di apoplessia. His estate amounted around ten thousand pounds sterling, which was paid to the Company to cover his outstanding debt. Sua immobiliare ammontano circa diecimila sterline, che è stato versato alla Società per coprire il suo debito. Because of his anti-slavery stance, he was refused burial inside his local parish church (St. Mary's, Hendon ) by the vicar , whose family had made its money in the slave trade. A brass tablet was finally placed in 1887 and the actual whereabouts of his body was not found until 1914 when it was found in a vault. When the church was extended in the 1920s his tomb was incorporated into the body of the building.